Philosophy of Love and Sex

Describe the three kinds of love: Eros, Philia and Agape Eros: †¢This is Greek term that refers to a type of love that is passionate, shows intense desire for something and is often referred to as sexual desires. Another word to describe this type of love is known as â€Å"Erotic. † As Plato writes: â€Å"he who loves the beautiful is called a lover because he partakes of it. † This quote explains that someone who admires the beauty of another is a lover because he shows the affection.The Platonic-Socratic explains that you can’t truly be friends with another after having sex with them. Philia: †¢Refers to the opposite sex and showing a tremendous amount of affection and appreciation towards friendship, parents, humanity. It should be a non-sexual relationship. Having friends is a good part of life. You need friendship to give you a notion to keep you happy to adjust to yourself. Forming a friendship is from liking each other, talking to one another or having the opposite of what you are (different).He also believes that friendship is based on pleasure but he also says that it’s not a real friendship then. Agape: †¢The love of humanity, belief in god and the combination of both Eros and Philia. You love everybody and everyone. Show affection towards your enemies and be nice to everyone. Love is unique and is distinguished by its nature and its character and how it is shown. It is also known as brotherly love.

Management: Human Resources Essay

Human Resources are perhaps the most important factors in attainment of organizational objectives. For years, this aspect of management has been overlooked or in a sense has not been given the importance that it deserves. During the course of this particular paper, the author shall try to focus over the points which make human resources the most crucial point for organizational prosperity and what a manager shall do in order to increase the efficiency of the workers. Undervaluation of intellect capital: The businesses rely on a number of resources in order to attain various goals and objectives. But this has been a proven fact that no other resource is so crucial in organizational progress like that of the human resources. The human resources bring along with them knowledge and information which are perhaps pretty crucial in achieving overall objectives. It is so crucial for the organization to make sure that the relevant data and information flows in the current direction and is present in almost all parts of the business organization. Even though the organizations have not been giving too much of importance to the intellectual capital as of today, still future belongs to this factor only. The managers need to develop proper models for developing, retaining and managing the intellectual resources of the business organization. As the General Manager, the author would like to propose a model for managing the intellectual capital of the business organization. The author proposes a simple model for management of intellectual capital of the business organization. The model consists of the following major elements:  · Strategic Direction and Vision: This element could be derived from the human resources of the business organization. The strategies are formulated by human resources and the vision of the organization is also decided by the human resources.  · Focus on the customers: The prime source of organizational prosperity.  · Products and processes: which the organization is dealing in.  · Culture of the organization These elements together constitute the intellectual capital for any kind of business. It becomes so crucial for any business form to ensure that all the four elements are managed in best possible way in order to make sure that overall intellectual capital is retained within the organization. Intellectual capital, in both the structural and human forms, comes together with customer knowledge. It is a winning combination. Capabilities Audit: Contribution in assessing the performance of the organization: In today’s business environment, the identity of any organization is not restricted to the output which they are producing, neither on the quarterly results or any related issues. The organizations are known for their capabilities. The manager should have the knowledge about the potential of the workforce and overall capabilities of the organization. Ulrich and Smallwood have suggested a pretty powerful and efficient way to assess the intangible resources of the business organization. A capabilities audit â€Å"provides a high level picture of an organization’s strengths and areas for improvement.†Ã‚   (Smallwood, Ulrich, 2007) The scope of capabilities audit is huge and it could really help in increasing the efficiency of the organization as it includes a number of points which cover almost all the concerned areas of the business organization. A custom capabilities audit includes the following points:  · What are the competencies and capabilities of the workforce: Are they able to deliver the products and services in accordance to customer’s expectations.  · Can the organization change in accordance to the ever dynamic business environment.  · What is the work culture of the organization? Are both customers and employees part of the organizational culture?  · What is more importance for the organization: High performance or following the strategies?  · What are the ways by which both efficiency and leverage could be attained?  · What is the level of the organization as compared with the changing global environment?  · The quality of leaders and the leadership styles in the organization.  · What is the amount of trust which we share with the customers?  · Do our employees share an intellectual, behavioural, and procedural agenda for our strategy?  · The amount of innovation in various aspects of the business.  · How important is cost reduction and cost management for the organization. Evaluation of HR functions in the organization: Talking about the author’s organization, HR happens to be one of the most important functions of the organization. Traditionally the organization concerned HR as a cost centre and something which could not be considered as a profit generating centre for the organization. But with development in management ideas, it was found that HRM is most crucial aspect in attainment of organization’s strategic objectives. HR function actively contributes in attaining organizational objectives. Every organization should have the capacity to retain the talent and knowledge which are crucial in context of the organizational success. Each person has got a different perception, attitude and outlook in life. These three factors are those, which he carries with him all the time, even while working in an organization. A manager has to make sure that he takes a different approach while dealing with different people. And this is where the real challenge lies—an HR manager has to make use of maximum skills, even in pettiest situations. Of course, the task of HR manager becomes even more difficult when the size and complexities of business increases. HR manager’s task also becomes so difficult due to diversity present in the workforce. HRM includes a series of activities that includes the staffing and recruitment of the people required for an organization, along with deciding the source and method to hire the people. (Bratton, Gold, 2001).

Samples, Power Analysis, and Design Sensitivity Statistics Project

Samples, Power Analysis, and Design Sensitivity - Statistics Project Example A research that lacks either form of validity communicates possible deviations from actual properties of the research subjects and can therefore not be relied upon. Both external and internal validities are also susceptible to threats that must be monitored for a desired level of accuracy. The two forms of validities are therefore important in developing confidence in drawn conclusions and made inferences from a research initiative. They are however different in their specific scopes of applicability, and their threats. Internal validity for instance defines a research process’ independence from confounds that may influence observations contrary to the treatment’s causal effects while external validity defines the degree of confidence in inferring research results to a population. Another difference between internal and external validity is their sets of threats. Threats to internal validity such as â€Å"maturation,† â€Å"selection,† â€Å"instrumentati on,† â€Å"statistical regression,† and â€Å"attrition† induces bias on the causal effect relationship to impair accuracy of observation on treatment effect. Threats to external validity however include â€Å"reactive effects of testing,† â€Å"interactive effect of selection,† â€Å"reactive effect of innovation† and â€Å"multiple program interface† and induces barriers between properties of the used sample and other population segments (Fink, 2004, 78, 79). Research questions to which external validity is of primary concern are those questions that seek to establish relationships that are generally applicable to an entire population. Example is a research question to establish the relationship between gender and students performance in sciences that is psychologically hypothesized to be uniform across populations. Internal validity, however, is primary to research questions that seek to establish existence of a relationship between two

Beta Blocker Treatment in Heart Failure Literature review - 1

Beta Blocker Treatment in Heart Failure - Literature review Example Studies confirm that Carvedilol therapy is more superior to the latter two Beta Blockers compared. This is due to its nature characteristics that entail possessing Alpha1 Beta1 and Beta2 whereas the two have only Beta1-selective receptors. Besides Carvedilol has vasolidilating characteristics, which is not evident in other Beta Blockers. However, not all people having Systolic malfunction qualify for Beta Blocker therapy. Since, it necessitates that one be in a stable condition and non-hospitalized. Random admission of the therapy on patients with absence of meticulous scrutiny normally results to patients’ death or complex predicaments, besides physical deterioration of the body. Admission of Beta therapy encompasses starting with small and regulated dosage until the patient attains the tolerable state for large doses. This therapy also sternly shuns attempts meant for abrupt discontinuation of the dosage because of its grievous effects. Since it yields to circulatory deterioration characterized by electrophysiologic unsteadiness. Finally, it has various side effects that if not attended to effectively may yield to be ruinous to the patients. For instance, some comprise Bradycardia, Fatigue, lightheadedness and frequent headaches, Insomnia, Chronic chest aches, High triglycerides and depression. Beta Blocker besides its present efficacy as a remedy for heart malfunction, it requires further study to reduce both the evident and future derivatives. This will ensure ailing persons do not suffer other complications while trying to cope with the main grievous predicament (chronic heart failure). Nakamura, K, Murakami, M, Miura, D, Yunoki, K, Enko, K, Tanaka, M, Saito, Y, Nishii, N, Miyoshi, T, Yoshida, M, Oe, H, Toh, N, Nagase, S, Kohno, K, Morita, H, Matsubara, H, Kusano, K, Ohe, T, & Ito, H. 2011, Beta-Blockers and Oxidative Stress in Patients with Heart Failure, Pharmaceuticals,

Define Groupthink Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Define Groupthink - Essay Example In groupthink consensus overrides common sense and inhibits the urge to present critique, unpopular opinion or alternatives to whatever is viewed as the commonly agreed ground (Wikipedia, 2013). In groupthink the urge to remain loyal to the team and maintain cohesion makes the team members to desist from raising alternative solutions or controversial issues. As a result, independent thinking, uniqueness in thought and individual creativity are lost at the expense of cohesion and loyalty to the group. The eventual outcome is poor problem solving and decision-making. The failed team dynamics of the â€Å"in-group† presents illusions that the appropriate decisions have been attained. Therefore the ‘in-group’ greatly overrates their decision-making abilities, and excessively downplays the decision-making ability of the ‘out-group’ or opponents. As such, team members tend to think or feel that they are more inclined to making the right decisions and offer better ideas and solutions than people from without the group. This happening often hinders the reception of contribution of ideas from non-group members or other groups (Wikipedia, 2013). This source uses the Swissair collapse and the Bay of Pigs Invasion as examples of events in which groupthink was at play when they took place. In the corporate sector suboptimal and ineffective decision-making may negatively impact on the good performance of any company and cause significant losses. Swissair had been a successful airline to the extent that at times it was referred to as the ‘Flying Bank (Hermann & Rammal, 2010).’ However, during this period of success the airline had two symptoms of groupthink (Wikipedia, 2013). These symptoms included the belief in group morality and invulnerability. Additionally, before the collapse fiasco the airline’s board was significantly reduced and people with expertise were eliminated. The board reduction action contributed to groupthink by leaving behind only

Response to the age of reform Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Response to the age of reform - Essay Example The reform brought a revolution in the ever expanding American community which was going to lead the world in the next centuries. Here, we will discuss how the age of Reform contributed to the United States’ sense of morality and what are the effects of the ideas and viewpoints of the early reformers on the American nation, today. Henry David Thoreau is considered to be the first reformer of this era with his substantial struggle to revolutionize the American society, buried deep into piles of illiteracy due to their conservative thinking. Men and women led by such great reformers strived to develop a community where laws of liberty and equality were equally applicable to everyone. The religious influence, war against alcohol, education for some and many other such strategies were developed to reshape the American society to enable it to live up to the noble goals stated in declaration of Independence and the Constitution. With the growth in America’s population, the community was facing a threat. According to Alan Brinkley, â€Å"most people were excited by the possibilities these changes produced. But they were also painfully aware of the dislocations that accompanied them.† (Brinkley). The rapid increase in American population, compelled American thinkers to try new ideas. One of such ideas was the formation of utopian society. An utopian society is a perfect society. â€Å"George Ripley endeavored to create one of the first utopian societies in West Roxberry, Massachusetts. The community was called Brook Farm, and was established in 1841.† (â€Å"Utopian Society†) Although the society soon dispersed, yet we see its remaining strains present in the modern American society. It has been tried; to build today’s American society on the basis of natural laws, one of which is the liberation of one’s spirit. It was an important idea developed by the philosophers o f that time to reveal

Juvenile Justice Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Juvenile Justice Policy - Essay Example They are not wary of what will happen next because it is their choice. They took that risk with the rationality of mind that it will be for the better. But the cases I have stated above are something that can not be applied to all societies and countries. For one apparent reason not every family can afford to send their children to school. Another reason is that there is an issue about removing children away from their family and sending them to a residential schools or boarding schools. This is a policy that many people are against with because there is the violation of the freedom to choose. Affected families have also stated different repercussions of the policy to the children and to the families of the children. Since it is a policy, no one can go against with it. But the question remains, is the policy really effective Do the policy makers uphold the objectives of the policy And have they really thought of welfare of the kids Or they are just serving their vested interests In the United States there is a policy wherein the Juvenile or the Family Court has given the authority to remove the children from their homes because of the following reasons: 1.) The child has been delinquent; 2.) The child has no parents making him or her dependent or abandoned and the child has no guardian; 3.) The needs of the child are not supplemented by his or her family - he is neglected; and lastly, 4.) The child is being abused in any forms or in any way. Aside from this policy, there is another existing policy that is similar to the one I have mentioned above but is very different in terms of the grounds why there is a need for removing kids from their home. The policy is very popular in North America where you can find most of the American-Indian. And the policy is removing Native American children from their homes and sending them into residential schools where according to the authorities it would help the children to learn civilizing lifestyle. Thus making them 'civ ilized' people. Historical Justification of the Policy and Its Implementation It all started when European Missionaries came to North America and lives with them. Through their observations they noticed that the people are 'uncivilized'. So they thought that it is best for the community of the Native Americans if they would separate the children away from their families. By doing so, the children will be taught on how to be a 'civilized' person (following of course the European lifestyle). The European Missionaries then build residential schools. They have stated two reasons, and these are: 1.) the very apparent reason is separating the children away from their family; and 2.) they believe that native culture is not worthy to preserve. That time they have in mind and they do believe that native culture is no use and soon it will eventually die. They also believe that all people would develop into someone like the civilized Europeans who consider themselves as advanced. The European Missionaries run this policy but in the long run the Canadian churches and the government helped the missionaries in implementing the policy. It is then that it became an official Canadian policy in support for educating American-Indian Children. The residential schoo

Divorce's Impact on Preschool, School-age, and Adolescent Children Essay

Divorce's Impact on Preschool, School-age, and Adolescent Children - Essay Example This more differentiated body of research is helpful in policy formation and for educating divorced parents about known risk factors for their children and what protective behaviors may enhance their children's longer-term adjustment. Life stress associated with marital disruption was found to account for the majority of children's adjustment problems. Children from nonintact homes show poorer adjustment than children from intact homes. Siblings experience increased closeness as a result of the shared experience of going through the divorce of their parents together. The young women also report turning to each other for support as a result of the emotional unavailability of their parents during the divorce. From the point of view of children, divorce is a stressful experience because of the disruption of the home and its financial, emotional, and social costs. The adverse impact, however, can be minimized by realistic and sensitive attention to its effects on children. Although divorce alters the living arrangements of affected families, it does not end family relationships. Most teenagers and their parents adjust to divorce and later regard it as having been a constructive action; but one-third do not. In those instances the turbulence of the post-divorce phase plays a crucial role in influencing pathological reactions in affected teenagers. Divorce is common in the contemporary way of life and deserves objective study. 3. Focus questions Does divorce have effects on children of different age groups What does literature say about it If these are negative how they can be avoided If these are positive, how can they be utilised in clinical practice 4. Review of literature 5. Search strategy based on key words, exclusion and inclusion criteria. 6. Findings from literature review: Critical review of contemporary literature on parental divorce and its effects on children, their mental health, social performances, economic parameters, and performance. Analysis of the causes and effects. Identification of the positive and negative aspects of these effects and their practice relevance. 7. Way forward: Summary of findings of literature review and suggestion for practice. Discussion about the ways to minimise divorce and improvement of coping mechanisms of the children. 8. Conclusion: Summary of the work. Introduction The ratio of marriage and divorce rates has been stable at about 50 percent for the past thirty years, indicating that, during this time, for every two marriages there has been one divorce. The number of divorces peaks only two and a half years after marriage; most divorces occur within ten years. In 2002, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention released a report about marriage, divorce, and remarriage trends based on a nationally representative sample of women fifteen to forty-four years of age. The data indicated that, after only three years, 12 percent of marriages had ended in either separation or divorce. After five years, 20 percent of all first marriages had ended; after ten years, 33 percent; and after fifteen years, 43 percent. The risk for marital disruption is greatest in the first years of marriage and noticeably levels off after the fifth year. Thus, the risk for divorce decreases with the length of the marriage (Bramlett and Mosher,

Ethics and sustaibanbility Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ethics and sustaibanbility - Essay Example Toyota got into a situation wherein disclosure could be damaging to both the company and to its customers. An ethical problem existed wherein a decision has to be made between what is bad and what is good. Toyota is also faced with a decision to act based on legality or efficiency of actions. The first steps in analyzing ethical issues are getting the facts to guide decisions and next are the appeal to values because the facts does not tell us what to do, but values directs us to moral issues of decisions. Documents showed that the Toyota knew of the problem with the sticky pedals in late September but did not issue a recall until late January. Why did they hide it from the public? Was it their intention to continue selling damaged vehicles and let buyers beware and face accidents? There is very little information on the internal events about the damage, who discovered it and other related details. What has been established is that Toyota knew of the damage as early as September of 2009 but made announcements only in late January in 2010. In five months time, there could have been accidents due to faulty breaks that could have been avoided. Individual groups who have important stake in the issue are customers of Toyota; the management and stockholders and the government. Some concerns that got Toyota into a mess, I believe, is the fear for outcome of decisions that would adversely affect Toyota’s operation. Those who will be affected by the first action are the Toyota customers who are facing dangers of accident due to faulty break system. Report said that there are about 2.3 million Toyota vehicles affected by the damage. In the second action, when Toyota announced to public the damage and recall of the cars, those affected are the stockholders and management. Confidence of customers on Toyota is threatened thereby there is a risk of decline of sales. Investors will also lose

Advertisements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Advertisements - Essay Example Competition always threatens to reduce the amount of sales recorded by each product.Because of this,manufactures of various products or providers of various services are forced to engage in regular advertisements These adverts are meant to capture the attention of consumers and provoke them to purchase a certain product or use it. Advertising involves the repetition of the name or image of a product with the aim of associating it with particular qualities with the brand in the minds of the consumers. The â€Å"holidays are coming† is a Coca Cola advertisement which features a train composed of red delivery trucks bearing the Coca Cola name are beautified with Christmas lights (Coca Cola video). The train drives along a snowy landscape and as it passes, it causes everything on its path to light up and people at the sides watch as delivery lorries pass by. This advert uses holiday campaigns and excitement as its advertising strategies. This advert made people to be aware that th e celebration season is back once again and this goes hand in hand with drinking. This motivates consumers to start treating themselves with Coca Cola drinks. It also reminds them to purchase or save money for buying coca-cola drinks for Christmas celebrations. The Coca Cola Company had stopped using the train advert in 2001. However, it was brought back in 2007 because many consumers called the company’s information center saying that they considered the advert as a mark of the beginning of Christmas. Another advert advertising Coca Cola was a billboard with a big bottle that had seemingly bubbled out a group of fun making and cheerful people. The background of the space containing the fun-making people is very bright. The slogan for this advert is â€Å"Live on the coke side of life† and uses excitement as its strategy (Coca-Cola-Art par 1). The â€Å"Live on the coke side of life† advert calls for people to live on the positive side of life (Coca-Cola-Art par 1). The advert makes people to think that drinking coca cola will make them to be happy. It helps them to reflect their optimist moments of their lives (Coca-Cola-Art par 2). The campaign invites consumers to live life full of color, create their own positive reality, listen to their hearts and be spontaneous. The use of people who are happy and making fun presents coca-cola not only as a drink that refreshes and makes one exited but also, it energizes them and gives them the strength to move with vigor. Another Coca-Cola advert is â€Å"Always Coca-Cola† previously featuring on TV. The main marketing strategy used in this advert is brand positioning. This adverts used good sounds and music, and a large mixture of pictures of people enjoying Coca Cola. Each picture in the advert had its own slogan. The welcoming picture was a cute lady smiling at the audience and its slogan was â€Å"have a Coca Cola†. The second is that of two men feeling so refreshed and its slogan was â€Å"it sends thirst flying† and the third slogan was â€Å"thirst asks nothing more†. The fourth slogan was â€Å"delicious and refreshing† followed by â€Å"so refreshing so welcome, everywhere† and the final is â€Å"what I want is Coke† and its picture featured a cure lady reaching out for a bottle of coke. All throughout the advert, there was a nice Coca Cola song that repetitively used the words â€Å"always Coca Cola.† The use of sounds and music helps to achieve effective marketing in that it makes people feel good to be associated with the product being advertised. The mixture good music and pictures creates in the consumers an emotional ambience that draws them to the marketing campaign and makes them feel good to have the product. The slogans â€Å"it sends thirst flying† and â€Å"thirst asks nothing more† makes consumers to perceive Coca Cola as the best solution to thirst and this will always prompt them to g et themselves of a bottle or can of Coca Cola whenever they are thirsty. In this way, the position of the brand in the soft

Integrative Therapy Essay Example for Free

Integrative Therapy Essay I started my first class of counselling today. I was very nervous and excited at the same time. I was nervous because I had not been in formal education for the past ten years and excited because I was going to do something for myself after 3 years of sitting at home and focus on something other than domestic issues. I arrived to my first class late and that made me more apprehensive. Looking around I noticed that there were people from different age and background. I started the class by telling others about myself and listened to them. I felt like I was in a group therapy, in a way it actually was because we were using our listening skills, which I believe is essential part of counselling. As it happened at the end of the task I was less nervous than I was at the beginning. Our next task was to find a partner and talk about ourselves to each other. We talked about our lives and it was up to us how much to tell our partner and to share it with the rest of the group. Again here, our listening skills were tested. This task also acted as ice breaker where the atmosphere of the class become more relaxed as we listened to each individual’s life and their achievements as well as their aspirations. I realised that most of the people who attended the course were there because of their life experiences propelled them to this course and that they felt they have something to give back as counsellor, or that they may learn some counselling skills to help them with their own lives. As for myself, since studying counselling as part of my degree course 10 years ago, I have wanted to become a counsellor. I always was motivated to help others. My only inability is and has been my lack of confidence. This is not because I don’t have the ability to listen and help others, but just that I am not a confident speaker and my communication skills needs to be enhanced and by doing this course I am hoping to overcome both and be prepared for further qualifications in counselling. During the class in groups we also discussed, what we want from rest of the group and what is required of me. There were some points, such as, Respect, Confidentially, Honesty, Being non- judgmental, etc, that we all agreed on. We ended the class by â€Å"checking out†, where we said how we felt and what we learned, like me, the rest of group was also more relaxed and were looking forward to the rest of the course. I see this course as learning route, where by the end of it I have learned some counselling skills, hopefully I will also overcome my own issues, which might have an impact on my role as a helper.

An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Psychology Essay

An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Psychology Essay Organisations are struggling in the current competitive economic climate. Ensuring organizational survival may ultimately come down to attracting and recruiting skilled employees (Barber Roehling, 1993). Terpstra (1994) identified recruitment as an essential strategy for organisations to prosper and survive in the global economy, suggesting the initial attraction and selection of candidates may be the most important foundation for organisational performance. As the realisation of the link between human-capital and financial growth is now a shared knowledge across sectors, the crucial importance an employee holds is broader acknowledged (Gardner, 2002). Recruitment is a fundamental organisational activity defining who will constitute the organisation (Turban Cable, 2003). The difference between a mediocre and exceptional hire could mean momentous differences for organisational profit (Wicklund-Hansen Weyergang-Nielsen, 2007). Thus the benefits of efficient and successful recruiting are increasingly recognized in research and literature (Barber, 1998; Billsberry, 2007; Breaugh, 2008). Recognising the importance of employees, individually and as a whole, organisations are increasing their recruitment investments. Ralston Brady (1994) modestly suggested the average cost of recruiting and selecting to be over $2000 per individual. Given such large amounts are spent, there is both an expectation and a demand for recruitment to be of organisational benefit. The study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) addresses the need for adapting recruitment practices to up-and-coming graduates, soon to constitute the labour force of the 21st century. Research findings by Ryan, Sacco, McFarland and Kriska (2000) emphasize also the importance of recognising the individual applicants choice in the recruitment process. However, Ryan and Tippins (2004) argue there are still large gaps between research and practice in this area. Recruitment in the current labour market Recruitment takes place in a wider societal context and shifts in the labour market will subsequently affect recruitment activities. In tighter markets potential candidates are likely to be less critical of the process as they are in desperate need for a job (Cable Judge, 1996). Contrary, in a flourishing economy where organisations are in demand of multiple hires, the on-going competition leads to a lack of high-quality candidates. Fernà ¡ndez-Arà ¡oz, Groysberg and Nohria (2009) claim organisations will face challenges when recruiting to replace the plentiful baby boomers. Some business sectors are especially prone to this and hence compete for the best candidates, also known as the war for talent (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002; Hiltrop; 1999). In contrast to much of Europe, Norway is a country where the economy is boosting (Takla, 2012). With an unemployment rate of 2.7% and increasing growth in the industry, Norway finds itself in a position where some occupations actually lack qualified workforce. Low unemployment rates will naturally increase competition for the best people (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002), but in Norway this is also combined with a strong economy and growing companies. Recent figures from the Norwegian labour and welfare administration revealed a need for 16.000 engineers in the imminent future (Kaspersen, 2012) The numbers are consistent with research predicting technical and engineering skills of particular shortage in the years to come (Dohm, 2000). Businesses in unrelenting demand of talent are consequently competing, all depending on qualified employers to survive (Tulgan, 2001). How recruitment is managed should be of essential value especially for organisations in such a position. A recent survey showed that 92% of organisations within the oil- and gas sector in Norway were in demand for graduate engineers (Vartdal Riise, 2012). One of the largest technical universities in Norway plans to expand their capacity for engineers by several hundred (Amelie, 2012a). An emerging job market consisting of desperate organisations and cohorts of new graduates triggers the need for further insight into attraction and recruitment. Defining recruitment Recruitment literature stretches over a wide spectre, thus claiming necessity to clarify a definition for the thesis at hand. Also, it must be distinguished between the two organisational activities recruitment and selection, tightly linked and often occurring simultaneously. Recruitment can be viewed as the initial and sustained attraction of candidates, whereas selection is the process of selecting among potential employees (Rynes Boudreau, 1986). Research on recruitment has often been subject to critique of having a static view of a process that is rather quite dynamic (Barber, 1998). In response this thesis views recruitment as an on-going process consisting of several stages (Saks Uggerslev, 2010) and will apply the following definition for recruitment: (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) the actions organizations take to generate applicant pools, maintain viable applicants, and encourage desired candidates to join those organizations (Dineen Soltis, 2011, p.43). This definition differs from B arbers (1998), critiqued for only focusing on attraction of candidates. Hence, it is desirable utilizing a definition that acknowledges the ultimate outcome of recruitment, namely a candidate ´s job offer acceptance (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002). Five dimensions of recruitment As the area of recruitment research is versatile, Barber ´s (1998) distinction between five dimensions of recruitment will be applied in the following paragraph. This serves as both a framework for organising a wide research area, as well as discussing previous work with its inevitable strengths and limitations. Clearly illustrated by these examples are how the dimensions are inextricably linked, underlining recruitment as dynamic and complex (Boswell, Roehling, LePine Moynihan, 2003). Context Rynes (1991) highlights the obvious fact that recruitment occurs in a wider contextual setting. The economic climate, labour market, organisational size and business-sector are all potentially influencing factors (Rynes, 1991; Rynes, Heneman Schwab, 1980; Taylor Bergmann, 1987; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). As the experience of recruitment inevitably will vary, it can be of value to have more specific recruitment research related to a given context (Derous Schreurs, 2009). Moreover, the need to recognise context as a variable in concrete research is much needed, as a great deal of recruitment studies is done in experimental settings. For example, Rynes and Miller (1983) manipulated recruiter knowledge, recruiter affect, and job attributes to measure effects of recruiter influence. Goltz and Giannantonio (1995) manipulated recruiter friendliness in an experimental video-condition study. Both studies found recruitment activities to have an effect on candidates, confirming the cont ributing value of experimental studies in the development of recruitment research (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin Jones, 2005). However, suggestions have been made that research designs using simulating job-applicants can lead to understated research claims (Rynes Miller, 1983; Uggerslev, Fassina Kraichy, 2012). Barber (1998) argues studies of experimental nature contribute to a simplification of the complexity the recruitment process holds. A simulated study does not necessarily capture the many variables and external occurrences that will influence a candidate in a real-world setting (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin Jones, 2005). Studies utilizing real job seekers in an actual recruitment setting might validate the strength of previous findings, if holding true to contexts where influence of a recruitment process truly has consequences both for candidate and organisation. On the other hand, manipulating variables in recruitment activities would be ethically challenging (Highhouse, Lievens Sinar, 2003). Therefore, studies done in a real-life setting must choose a method in line with strict ethical considerations. Players Naturally receiving most attention in recruitment research has been organisational representatives and candidates. Recognising both parties is the social process paradigm with a view of recruitment as a two-way, inter-subjective interaction (Herriot, 2002). This perspective has progressively earned respect as an alternative to the dominating psychometric paradigm by allowing for the candidate ´s voice to be heard (Billsberry, 2007). The development towards a social process rather than a one-sided organisational choice leads to interesting interactions between candidate and organisation in the current economic climate. A number of recent studies have attempted to determine the best strategy for attracting and convincing candidates to accept job offers in a competitive market (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002; Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998; reference possibly Boswell et al, if not finding any other more about a competitive market). Extensively debated is whether recruiter characteristics and behaviour actually have an influence on candidates. Alderfer and McCord (1970) were among the first to explore the possible effect of recruiter characteristics; a continuing topic of interest as recruitment research has evolved. The meta-analysis by Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin and Jones (2005) concluded that recruiter behaviour such as being personable influenced candidate attraction to organisations. By applying signalling theory (Spence, 1973) to recruitment, research has demonstrated how candidates view recruiters in the recruitment process as signals of unknown organisational characteristics and attributes (Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998). Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found recruiters to act as a symbol of interpersonal relations in the organisation, indicating candidates use recruiter behaviour as images of interpersonal work relations. Chapman and Webster (2006) later concluded recruiter influence app ears more complex than anticipated. However, Breaugh (2012) points out that less attention has been devoted to recruiter effects over the last few years. Also, a majority of recruiter-candidate interaction research is built on experimental designs, possibly ignoring effects from a real-life human interplay (reference). It is further suggested that qualitative research could prove value beyond the majority of existing quantitative research (Breaugh, 2012). Activities Organisations facilitate recruitment activities such as campus career fairs, employment interviews and site visits to attract candidates (Arvey Campion, 1982; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). The review by Rynes, Heneman and Schwab (1980) and more recent research by Collins and Stevens (2002) both state that recruitment activities have the potential to influence candidates, possibly by signals of wider organisational attributes (Turban, 2001). However, there is still a need for a better understanding of how recruitment activities affect a candidate (Turban, 2001). Breaugh (2008) highlights the site visit as a recruitment activity given undeservedly little attention. An exception is the study by Turban, Campion and Eyring (1995) extending preceding research by demonstrating just how influential the site visit can be on actual job acceptance decisions. Another interesting aspect of the site visit is the possibility to meet future colleagues beyond organisational representatives often sent from the human resource department. Consistent with the suggestion by Rynes and Miller (1983), Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found that meetings with any given organisational representative is less influential than meeting someone from the same functional area as the candidate. The site visit typically consists of several activities and Turban, Campion Eyring (1995) suggest future research continuing to investigate how applicants interpret and make meaning of attending one. Saks and Uggerslev (2010) critiques existing research for an exaggerated focus on single activities. Consequentially some activities can come across as having a very small or large influence, possibly limited by research methodology. Those who ultimately accept a job offer will have been through a more extensive process, very likely consisting of several activities. Whereas initial stages are critical to determine candidate ´s further pursuit, later stages have a profound effect on the final job acceptance decision. Recruitment activities do not occur in a vacuum. The overall experience of a recruitment process based on combined effects of activities must be acknowledged (Saks Uggerslev, 2010). Phases Experimental studies often break the recruitment process down to smaller units for investigation. This approach ignores that going through a recruitment process is not likely to be experienced as single events with a separate effect on the candidate, but rather as a process consisting of phases (Boswell, Roehling, LePine and Moynihan, 2003). The early stages of recruitment have been suggested critical, because this can decide candidates willingness to proceed with a given organisation. Critical contact theory addresses how applicants are influenced in their first meeting with organisational representatives (Ralston Brady, 1994). Rynes, Bretz and Gerharts (1991) study demonstrated the possible detrimental effects of a single interaction, showing a number of candidates actually chose to withdraw from recruitment based on a negative first impression. Due to the stress job search can hold as well as anticipation of evaluation, it has been suggested job applicants enter the process with uncertainty as a salient emotion (Proost, Derous, Schreurs, Hagtvet De Witte, 2008; Rynes, 1991). Moreover, uncertainty is likely to persist as candidates are faced with consistently limited information (Barber Roehling, 1993). Assessing levels of uncertainty is difficult in a simulated setting, unfortunately undermining a great deal of existing research (Breaugh, 1992, as cited in Barber Roehling, 1993). Studies have demonstrated that candidates weigh various information and organisational features differently throughout the recruitment process (Carless, 2005; Jaidi, Van Hooft Arends, 2011). The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests peripheral processing is superior to central processing in the primary stages of a recruitment process (Larsen Phillips, 2002). The former type of information processing typically leads to a focus on environmental cues rather than relevant job characteristics. Saks and Uggerslevs (2010) study on college students found that rather focusing on the effect of a single activity or stage, the total combination of the whole recruitment process should be considered. Contrary, it has been suggested that various stages of the recruitment process in itself does not significantly influence a candidate final decision (Lawler, Kuleck, Rhode Sorensen, 1975; Powell Goulet, 1996). Findings from previous research thus prove conflicting; suggesting candidates may go through recruitment with or without a diverse range of perceptions, emotions and thoughts that influence their final decisions. Outcome For organisations to maximise utility, the ultimate end goal of a recruitment process is job offer acceptance from desirable candidates (Jackson Schuler, 1990). Nevertheless, much research has often studied candidate ´s reactions at a given point during the process. Attracting and maintaining candidates are obviously necessary requirements for a viable recruitment process. Yet, acknowledging the process inherent dynamic nature combined with the fact that organisations attempt to actively influence a potential candidate; the effects of this influence must be assessed. The study by Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001) revealed that different factors lead to job attraction and actual job pursuit. An extensive amount of research measures only candidates attitudes, perceptions and impressions, rather than actual choice (Rynes, Bretz Gerhart, 1991). Many studies approach recruitment from the organisations view, attempting to establish how an applicant can be persuaded to accept a job of fer (Jaidi, Van Hooft Arends, 2011; reference). Such studies operate with the implicit assumption of a candidate actually making a choice (Boswell et al., 2003). However there is less knowledge of how the candidate perceives this choice or decision-making. The perspective of a candidate who has been through a full recruitment experience with the result of accepting a job offer is less investigated and will inevitably provide knowledge of important aspects of recruitment (Saks Uggerslev, 2010). Graduates A large part of an organisations recruitment activities revolve around new graduates, of interest for the new skills and updated education they contribute with (Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998; Wayne Casper, 2012). The recent years have witnessed changes in recruitment practices as competition for graduates tightens (Branine, 2008). However, recruitment literature and research has often been criticised for overly emphasizing college graduates (Breaugh, 2008; Rynes, Heneman III Schwab, 1980). Nevertheless, multiple interesting aspects serve justice to focusing on this particular group of job seekers. Career theory refers to the transition from student to employee as an important one, significantly affecting a person ´s life (Super, 1980). Previous research has found inexperienced job seekers to be more likely influenced by recruitment practices (Feldman Arnold, 1978; Larsen Phillips, 2002). Walker, Field, Giles and Bernerth (2008) demonstrated how candidates limited job experience and job search influenced their perception of recruitment activities. Seeking full-time employment for the very first time might be a particular meaningful event where one is exceptionally aware of recruitment practices because of their novelty. Graduate recruitment is both voluminous in size and investments( Rynes Boudreau, 1986). In addition, the study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) suggested the coming workforce, generation Y (1977-1994) differs from previous generations. As organisations are increasingly acknowledging human capital as a competitive edge, the need for educated workforce is not likely to decrease. Liden and Parsons (1996) points out that educated candidates approach job-searching differently than candidates seeking lower level jobs, where the former is more discriminating in the process. Collectively, this demonstrates new graduates as a sample of interest for further investigation. Rather than attempting to generalise across all job seekers, clearly quite distinctive, this study recognises and appreciates graduates as a separate target group for research. Aim and research question In summary, Barbers dimensions call attention to recruitment research in the field, where context and realistic human interaction is acknowledged. There is a need to further investigate how recruitment activities and recruiter behaviour are elements of a whole recruitment experience leading to the ultimate outcome of a candidates job offer acceptance. The current economic climate holds exciting times for new graduates. Indeed, Celani and Singh (2011) highlight the competitive benefit an organisation could gain from enhanced understandings of candidate ´s reaction and appraisal of recruitment practices. By acknowledging the individual as the organisations most valuable asset, an expectation follows to consider the individual ´s perspective, also in recruitment. Breaugh (2012) highlighted the valuable in-depth insight to the candidate ´s perspective from the previous qualitative work of Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) and Boswell, Roehling, LePine Moynihan (2003). Based on a person-centric approach, Weiss Rupp (2011) suggest the human subjective experience should guide more research. Insight from candidates own words about recruitment experiences has been of inspiration (Billsberry, 2007). Therefore, the study employs a phenomenological approach to address the following research question: How does a recent graduate experience the recruitment process? A phenomenological approach Phenomenology is concerned with exploring the richness of a real, concrete, daily-lived phenomenon (Finlay, 2009). The transition from graduating student to working professional has been proven a major one, additionally supported by life-stages theory and career theory (Ng Feldman, 2007; Schein, 1978, Super; 1980). Billsberry (2007) argue job-related events such as obtaining or changing jobs are of significance, but they are also a natural experience in the inevitable progression of life. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is an approach of exploration of a lived experience (Clarke, 2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis is therefore suitable to explore how a new graduate experience a recruitment process. Something about why not other qualitative methods? However, merely stating that a study is of phenomenological nature is not sufficient for methodological rigour. Adopting a philosophical stance underpinning the method of choice should be done to uphold methodological clarity (Lowes Prowse, 2001). The transcendental phenomenology as described in the original work of Husserl request suspending all presuppositions of a phenomenon through bracketing (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). This standpoint has been critiqued for not recognising the cognitive aspect of a human being situated in a contextual world (Wilding Whiteford, 2005). Furthermore, the researcher ´s seminal role in identifying, defining and formulating research is consistent with Smith ´s (2004) recommendation to avoid a superficial attempt of bracketing. The philosophical foundations underlying IPA is simply not compatible with complete bracketing, as the interpretative component inevitably acknowledges the researcher ´s role. Heidegger advocates a hermeneutic phenomenology with interpretation at its core (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Utilizing a double hermeneutic acknowledges the dual role of the researcher, where one tries to make sense of the participants experience after the experience has been subject to sense making from the participant itself (Smith Osborn, 2003 double check book Uni). Rather than shallow bracketing, not adequate to its true form as proposed by Husserl, reflexive bracketing was done in resonance with Ahern ´s recommendations (1999). As being reflexive involves more than having an awareness of one ´s standpoint, but should be consciously exercised throughout the research process, a full reflexive account is given in section x.x (Finlay, 2002). A main goal in phenomenology is being able to understand what a particular experience is like for someone else (Creswell, 2007). Rooted in the phenomenological approach is the recognition that an experience takes place in a specific context (Willig, 2009). The contextual setting of the study will subsequently be addressed in the following section. Context To advocate high-quality research, Stiles (1993) advise explicit awareness of the social and cultural context of the research (as cited in Elliott, Fischer Rennie, 1999). IPA recognises that the individual is positioned in a context, inevitably influencing the individual sense-making process (Clarke, 2009). Furthermore, the aspect of context has often been overlooked in recruitment research, pointed out by Rynes (1991) more than twenty years ago. Erhart and Zieger (2005) continuously emphasize researchers to render the environmental context where organisational recruitment takes place. Several authors have highlighted the important factor of the current labour market (Rynes, Heneman Schwab, 1980; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). In response and in the belief of context-depending findings, the following paragraph will give a brief description of the context where this study took place. The region of Western Norway thrives on the oil business and a majority of workplaces originates within this sector (Boe Hornbug, 2012). Stavanger, one of the largest cities in the region is often referred to as the oil capital of Norway. Several large international oil companies base their Norwegian head offices in this part of the country. Due to constant development over the last years and a forecast of continuous growth there is a pressing need for qualified engineers. The present study was conducted in an oil company employing 70.000 across the world, whereby 2000 of these work in Norway (Taraldsen, 2012). A recent survey completed by engineering students from the largest University in the area demonstrated the company ´s high status; the company was rated among the top five most popular employers (Hult, 2012). The company still emphasizes advertising their vacancies through the most popular job-search base in Norway. In general, job advertisements underline the companys attractiveness by emphasizing their abilities and position in the market. The adverts also encourage potential candidates to apply by embracing the uniqueness of each individual employee. During winter 2011/2012, the company carried out a recruitment process for their graduate programme, hiring 25 trainees after receiving several hundred applications. On the basis of their recent recruitment experience, a number of the newly hired trainees were asked to participate in this study. Acknowledging the criticism of recruitment research ´s large focus on graduate samples (Rynes, Orlitzky Bretz, Jr., 1997), nevertheless this was seen as a factor adding to the interest of this study. The social, the cultural and the heavy media focus on the oil business sector may lead to both expectations and pressure for a new graduate. A survey of the labour market during spring 2012 demonstrated that 82% of engineer graduates already have a contract signed by completion of their education (Amelie, 2012b). Organisations are ambitious in their search for talented candidates and as a result initiate recruitment at early stages (Gjerde, 2012; Halvorsen Ellingsen, 2011). While the offensive approach of competing organisations can contribute to an awareness of the attractiveness of engineers, it can simultaneously force feelings of pressure, rush and st ress to the process of securing a job. Method Design To explore new graduates experience of a recruitment process, a cross-sectional study of qualitative nature was conducted. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to analyse semi-structured interviews. Procedure The researcher made contact with the organisation through a personal acquaintance in February 2012. Being aware of possible challenges in regards to organisational access, the researcher took several steps to ensure a smooth process (Johl Renganthan, 2010). Through mutual agreement between the researcher ´s area of interest as well as the organisation ´s need, a suitable sample for research was identified. The sample was chosen purposively to ensure all the participants had experienced the phenomena of interest, necessary to give insight into a particular perspective of the experience (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Striving for a homogeneous sample, sample criteria were set to be recent graduated engineers who through the process of obtaining their first job naturally had been through a recruitment process. It was established prior to commencement of research that participants had been exposed to various recruitment activities. To increase credibility for the study the human resource senior manager of the organisation sent out the first informative e-mail, encouraging participation. This was also done to ensure the participants felt comfortable sharing their experience, given they were recently hired at the organisation. Further, the researcher established contact per e-mail with the individual with thorough information (Appendix X: Information sheet). E-mail contact is considered efficient for both parties in establishing contact and to make further arrangements for the interview (Seidman, 2006). Given practical considerations and various start-dates, 14 individuals were contacted. As IPA is concerned with the quality and not the quantity of accounts, the researcher searched for a smaller sample as 3-6 participants is recommended (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). However it was found useful to initially contact a larger number, being aware that some participants may withdraw (Seidman, 2006). All but one were initially positive, however situational factors led to a final sample of 6 participants. The researcher found this sample to fulfil the requirement of both suitable size and saturation (Kvale, 2007). Participants The sample consisted of Norwegian citizens, 3 females and 3 males (6 in total) between the ages 22-28. All participants had experienced various recruitment processes, including a site visit arranged by the organisation prior to being hired. The participants were all recent graduated engineers with a BSc or an MSc degree within various fields of engineering. All participants had their education from Norwegian universities where recruitment activities arranged by several companies had taken place in various forms. All but one participant resided in the greater area of Stavanger. Fictitious names were given to each participant to ensure anonymity. Interviews Inviting to a rich, detailed and personal account of the individual ´s experience, semi-structured interviews were chosen as method for this study. This is the preferred method for IPA as its flexibility allows for the experience of interest to lead the interview, rather than fitting it into pre-determined categories of a structured interview (Smith, 1995). Two pilot interviews were conducted early in the process, as strongly advised by Seidman (2006). This familiarises the researcher with the complexities an interview may hold. Although not identical with the actual sample, the volunteers for pilot interviews were also recent graduates having undergone recruitment processes in their search for jobs in the past year. Hence pilot interviews were useful to provide insight into possible important aspects of a recruitment experience and also led to changes in the interview structure such as fewer and less non-directive questions. The pilot was also seen as valuable training in interview technique, which according to Kvale (2007) is mastered through extensive practice. The interview guide was developed after wide reading around the topic of interest as well as inspiration from the pilot. Advised by Smith, Flower and Larkin (2009) it was attempted to approach the area of interest sideways. Rather than asking direct questions, which may be leading the participant, the questions attempted to facilitate a discussion around the topic of interest. The interview commenced by the open-ended question Could you tell me about how you got this job? (Appendix X). For an open-mind in regards to the participant ´s experience, open-ended questions were asked, allowing the participant ´s answer to steer the direction of the interview (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Although having prepared possible follow-up questions, the researcher exercised flexibility throughout the interviews to fully be able to attend to the personal experience of the individual. Probes and prompts were used as suited. The interview session was rounded off asking each participant if they had anything further to add which had not been addressed in the interview, but that was seen as important in their recruitment experience (Kvale, 2007). Interviews were held in the workplace during week 26 and 27 at the participant ´s convenience. The researcher made sure to be allocated a room in sufficient distance from the participant ´s department, to s

Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT)

Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Title/Abstract In this study we aim to provide an analysis of a subjects problems using the Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) suggested by Kelly. The subject is a 35 year old female full time employee working in the same company as the researcher and has shown no barriers to construing. The subjects problems with her relationships have been determined using the Repertory grid interview and we discuss results and provide an analysis of the findings following the interview and data collection. The interview was done to identify elements within the clients relationships and all interview limitations have been considered for the study. We provide an analysis of Personal Constructs Theory in general giving a brief overview of its main premises and principles and then move on to its applications including the Grid interview technique on our client. We discuss the results and analyse the findings accordingly. Introduction George Kellys Personal Construct Theory (PCT) emphasises that the world is perceived by a person according to the meaning the person applies to it and the person has the freedom to choose a meaning according to what he or she wants (Kelly, 1955). Thus a person has the freedom to choose a meaning in terms of which he perceives the world and can apply alternative constructions or meanings to his past, present and future events. Thus a person is not a victim of his events but can liberate himself from unpleasant events by reinterpreting and redefining them. According to Kelly (1955) PCT attempts to explain why a man does what he does and is a theory about how the human process flows, how it strives in new directions as well as in old, and how it may dare for the first time to reach into the depths of newly perceived dimensions Kelly states that a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipate the events'(1955). Here, the subject is the process and the individual is a behaving organism who may need an external force to initiate an event. The processes include those of self-definition and relationships with others, and how we interpret events around us as well as the events we perceive and tasks at hand (Kelly 1955). Kelly based his theory of PCT on man as the scientist model and the basic points were as follows: the individual creates his or her own ways of seeing the world and interprets events according to how he perceive them the individual builds percepts and constructs; these constructs are organized into systems, or group of constructs which embody relationships; two or more systems may contain the same events, yet the events are separate from any of the systems; any individuals systems have a definite foci The term construct is a concept that represents the view a person has constructed about the world as he experiences it. Constructs also represent the way a person is likely to construe the world and the construct system as a whole represents the history and predisposition to perceive the world in a particular way. Kelly also distinguished between social reality, individual reality and communality. Individuality denotes that every individual differ from each other in how they construct or perceive the world, communality refers to the underlying similarities or common elements in perception and how the construction of experience in one person is similar to that of another (Kelly, 1955). Social reality is perception of how one person construes the construction processes of another person and how they are involved in a social role. Personal construct theory has been used in several sociological and scientific disciplines and it has been emphasised that social reality and communality should be considered along with the individual or personal reality and both have to be considered together in developing an understanding of the psychological processes (Dalton, 1992). The theory of Personal Constructs, points out that it is our personal psychological constructs that make the world predictable. We use construct systems to help in perception of the world and respond to all situations according to these perceptions. Our construct systems help us to make sense of the world, to make it predictable, to draw conclusions about causes and effects and we learn from experiences and adjust our behaviour accordingly (Fransella, 1995). Kelly wrote that the construct systems influence our expectations and perceptions and reflect our past experiences according to which we shape our future expectations. For example since we known from our past experiences that winters are cold, we would take adequate measures of protection during winter because we expect winters to be cold. However according to Kelly, our construct systems grow and change and are not static and are either confirmed or challenged when we are conscious. We adapt and immunise our constructs according to the situation and alter our feelings according to our experiences. We also tend to think and react according to our construct systems and some constructs represent values and key relationships which are difficult to change and fixed whereas some other constructs are less complex and more flexible and adaptive. The truth about the world as understood and experienced determines the nature of the construct system. Construct systems are not generally judged according to any objective truth and depend on an individuals personal feelings, perceptions and choices (Dalton, 1992). One individuals construct system may be different from anothers and when there is a general disagreement in constructs, it is generally denoted by prejudice or preconception. Although conflicts and differences of opinions are unpleasant, these events help us to understand differences in people and help us to learn how other people perceive things (Stevens, 1996). However construct systems change and may not be altogether internally consistent. People may react or perceive things differently even in similar circumstances and this is normal as there is a certain degree of internal inconsistency in perception of events. Distortions of judgement due to internal inconsistency of personal constructs can be harmful for a person as he may suffer from personal distress. The extent to which one person can appreciate and react to another persons constructs is a measure of empathy or how one perceives another (Banister, 1985). One persons construct system may be markedly different from another p ersons constructs yet one should be able to infer the other persons construct in order to empathise and develop a sense of social oneness and responsibility. Kellys theory is one of the most effective theories in social research and helps to provide a psychological explanation of social similarities and differences. The applications of Kellys theory of Personal constructs are wide and varied as it helps to provide mathematical representations of constructs systems. Construct systems are multidimensional mathematical models and a persons language is used to classify his or her experiences. Kelly developed a number of mathematical models and representations of construct systems and tested hypotheses that followed from basic personal construct theory (Fransella and Bannister, 1977). To understand peoples personal construct systems the repertory Grid Interview technique was developed, also known as the Role Construct Repertory Test. The repertoire of constructs that a person develops represents some form of perception, judgement or evaluation and is always comparative. Thus judgement of anything good is in comparison with the concept of bad. Thus in using a Grid interview three elements are considered and then two are paired in contrast with a third. The theory of personal constructs can be applied to personal experiences and relationships and so parents, relations, friends, colleagues and the individual are largely responsible for the formation of constructs (Smith et al, 1995; Kalekin-Fishman et al, 1996). Kelly elicited a patients constructs, rated the different elements on the constructs and used the resultant grid to point out to the client what his primary problems or concerns were. This helped to decide which therapy would be important and helped to determine the progress and effectiveness of therapy. For example one could find the two elements in a personal relationship of a patient and his mother and use this technique to find out differences between a patients perception of himself and what his mother would like him to be. The patient would then be encouraged to provide a self description and work through means of making his relationship with his mother more pleasant and productive. If there are paranoid elements recognised in a patients perception of himself or his relationships, appropriate therapeutic interventions are suggested. The Repertory Grid interviewing technique was developed by Kelly to overcome some of the methodological limitations of the interview method. The main steps of the Grid technique include 1. Selecting a set of elements – this could be anything from relationships to issues and the elements could be people involved in these relationships with the client. 2. The elements are taken in groups of three and the client is asked to pair two of them separating the third according to a special characteristic (Adams-Webber, 1983). Thus here the differentiation is done according to constructs determined by the client and is done on a bipolar scale with the interviewer setting up the question but the client determining the content (Anderson, 1987). The constructs are examined in some detail and after the interview the constructs are made into scales of 1-5 and the interviewee is expected to rate every element for every construct on this scale. The result is a matrix and this is then analysed statistically to show the client his problems and how they can be tackled. The statistical analysis helps to give measurements of individual people characteristics and compares peoples perceptions before and after the interview. The Grid is thus a statistical, and content free process and although the interviewer initiates its functions, it is the patient who drives it allowing him to come out with his own perceptions thus giving the process a freedom from any interviewer bias and allows complete transparency(Anderson, 1987). Since it is also a standardised interviewing technique any interviewer can read the interview and understand its implications. Russell and Cox (2003) and Morrison (1991) have stressed on the importance of repertory grid in the analysis of individual perceptions. Considering Kellys constructivist alternativism, we can assume that all our present perceptions of the world could be subject to changes and revisions and accordingly our perceptions of people and subsequently our interpersonal relationships could also be changed according to this principle. Method A 35 year old female colleague, Marie Oliver was selected for the interview process. The client was having some relationship problems, especially with her work colleagues and has been showing maladjustment along with problems of anxiety, depression and lack of productivity at work. The participant was apprised of the purpose of the interviewing and was asked to participate suggesting that participation in the interview would help her in overcoming her personal problems. A Repertory Grid Interview was done and the first step was identifying elements or grid components. For this all the possible elements including people in relationships were identified. Thus elements are work colleagues known to the participant and to the researcher, and the participant used triad method with the elements to create constructs around any one chosen topic. Elements were then compared by asking participant to take 3 elements and ascertain where 2 are similar and 1 is different, and the participant was en couraged to continue until all possible combinations were exhausted of 3 elements from the set of 10. The instruction given in this case was , choose any three of these known people and group two of them together separating a possible third to show why two of them are similar and how they differ from the third person. This process was used to identify similarities and differences of individuals until the participant ran out of constructs. Several mini-grids were developed in advance to ensure that the participant was comfortable with the process of grid construction. Then the Participant followed the process, generated the first grid, to ascertain whether each element is more like the similarity pole or difference pole by marking with x or o respectively. The participant then generated a second grid to rate each element on each of the 10 constructs using 1-5 point scale, but presented the grid to experimenter without ratings, experimenter then created the final grid as the participant. The main aim and purpose of the interview was agreed with the participant and views about other work colleagues were thus taken. The participant was fully informed from outset regarding the possibility that the revelations from the Grid Interview could be unsettling for her. However for these purposes, participants consent form was also signed in advance and the constructs were then set up on the grid allowing to be revealed. In the process of the interview, the researcher made notes on participant behaviour and perceptions as verbally revealed. In this case, the participant Marie was asked to identify the elements in her workplace that could be considered in her relationships with colleagues. Marie identified 10 colleagues at her workplace and separated two of them as distinct from a third. The common points and the differences were noted. Each of the 10 constructs chosen were rated on a 1-5 scale and the grids were created with similarity and difference poles marked by x or an o. This was done in case of determining constructs and relationships with work colleagues. After the formation of a grid, an analysis was drawn up. Findings/Analysis The two assumptions of the Grid Interview by Kelly were as follows: 1. If we can identify an individuals construct map there is a strong possibility we can predict that individuals behaviour. 2. We may be able to modify an individuals map, and therefore behaviour, by some form of training. The two aspects of the Repertory Grid are 1. Elements which are the objects of an individuals thinking and to which they relate their concepts or values. These elements may be people with qualities like effective, unprofessional, etc or they may be objects or abstract, concrete concepts like the interview or a test 2. Constructs are the qualities used to describe the elements in our personal, individual relationships thus a person is effective because he has a pleasant relationship with his staff which reflects personal construct as applied to the element of an effective individual The main elements in an analysis when a grid is applied to an individual are: 1. The results relate to that individual alone 2. Only one grid has to be analysed for an individuals report. 3. A grid scoring form is used to perform the analysis The Findings and Analysis help us to probe the following questions: To what extent was the study helpful in understanding the participants view of the topic of examination? Identification and justification of apparent areas of understanding and lack of understanding Is a pattern of understanding evident? How does the analysis link with the notes made prior to completing grids on expected areas of degree of understanding? What is the meaning revealed by the participants choice of elements and constructs? Do the elements and constructs reveal a similar or different view of the topic of analysis chosen? What does the degree of the match imply? Was the study any more helpful when conversation elaboration was also used as an extended method? Is some analysis of new understandings reached during feedback conversation helpful for the process? What do the notes and quotes as revealed by the client suggest? The findings are given as follows: Degree of similarity Elements (Mostly worked together with these individuals) Close agreement on 4, 5, 6 – elements Less agreement on 9 – element (Mostly worked separately with these individuals) Little agreement on 1,2,3,7,8,10- elements with different negative personal experiences working with E7 and E8 on particular projects. Degree of similarity – Constructs Close agreement on 6 – constructs (professional conduct). Upon discussion, views were similar regarding the meaning of professional conduct and who could be trusted. Less agreement on 1,3,4,5,7,9 – constructs. Upon discussion, researcher and client shared similar/same definitions of each construct. Differences in definitions regarding Constructs Little agreement on 2,8,10 constructs. Upon discussion, our definitions were different, hence our measurement of each element came from a different understanding of constructs. The elements identified by Marie were individuals at the workplace and Marie revealed that she worked closely with elements 4, 5 and 6 although had less agreement with element or colleague 9. Marie revealed that she has worked separately and had negative personal experiences with colleagues identified as elements 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 and 10 although she said she was working on the same project with two of these negatively perceived colleagues 7 and 8. Mari suggested a close agreement with 6 on professional conduct and said that her views with 6 were similar regarding professional conduct, friendships and trust issues as to who in the office should or should not be trusted. Marie suggested that her constructs were either in contrast to or were not compatible with those of 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 elements or colleagues identified. Marie and the researcher had some discussions on the nature and definition of particular perceptions and constructs and the general definition of these identified by th e researcher were similar to that of the subject. The subjects perceptions, feedback and opinions on the constructs were noted separately. Marie identified that two of the colleagues were friendly and amicable and compared with the other person who in contrast has been described as unfriendly and not easy to get along with. The Repertory Grid Scoring sheet is drawn as follows: Pairs similarities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 empathy Work culture attitude friendliness knowledgeable Team orientedness Good style appearance leadership helpfulness The process of producing the Repertory Grid can be broken down into the following steps: Step One The participant Marie identifies ten colleagues whom she knows well. Among these ten colleagues Marie should go along well with at least two of them ideally. Step Two – Marie is given six pieces of card or paper on which she is asked to write the names of the people she has identified. These are the elements described. A number can also be added to the card/paper to signify description and added at the head of column on the scoring sheet. Alternatively, the name itself of the element identified can be entered on the scoring sheet as well. Step Three – Three cards are selected, for example 1, 2 and 3, and Marie is asked to identify some aspect related to these colleagues behaviour which makes two of the three people selected different from the third. The construct word or phrase is written in the top left side of the vertical columns. In the top right side of the vertical columns is written the description of the person one who is different from the other two. This process of obtaining constructs from the three people is continued until no further constructs or perceived characteristics could be elicited from the participant. Step Four – Once the constructs have been completely elicited and entered on the scoresheet, the cards are returned. Each element person is then given a score on a scale of 1 to 5. A score of 1 or 2 is allocated to those who are suited to the description in the left-hand column, the column with the description of the pair. Scores of 5 or 4 are allocated to those who match with the description in the right-hand column, the description of the odd person out Step Five – A different set of three cards is then selected, cards 4, 5 and 6 and the process in steps 3 and 4 is repeated, ensuring that the description of pairs is recorded in the left-hand column and a score of 1 or 2 relates to the pairs similarity and score points of 4 and 5 relate to the description of the single person. A score of 3 is average score. A score of at least one 1 and one 5 is helpful when allocated usually from the set of three people for whom the constructs are being elicited. Step Six – Step five is repeated and the various combinations of the elements are aimed to be covered until the participants run out of perceived characteristics or constructs that could be entered on the card. After the grid consideration, the grid scoring sheet is used to record the views of the participant for each element against each construct which has been offered. The data collected is then subject to analysis. A manual analysis can generate and extract considerable information from the grid and all the constructs are related to the personal characteristics of each work colleague considered in the study by Marie. Step Seven – In this case study we consider the behavioural aspects of work colleagues of Marie which is related to their overall friendliness, therefore at the end of the grid Marie is asked to rate the elements in a single, given construct over a scale of friendly to unfriendly. The scoring for friendliness is then compared with other individual aspects to highlight differences and to provide indicators for friendliness. Step Eight – The scores for each construct are obtained by marking the difference for each element against the general friendliness figure. Step Nine – In this phase, we analyse the various constructs on the basis that if the score is low the aspect measured is significant in the ranking for friendliness It is the duty of interviewer to remain without any bias and to refrain from giving any suggestion to the participant on what constructs should be drawn. Forming the constructs is entirely dependent on the participant and the researcher has no role in its formation. They must be according to the thoughts and perceptions of the individual who is being interviewed in this case, Marie although the constructs must be clear, meaningful. Here the analyst has helped her in one or two cases when she couldnt describe the construct and sought help of the analyst to come out with the right word. After the constructs are listed against the elements, the grid results are scored and are ready to be used for analysis. From the example used in this study -the aspects which go towards the behavioural skills of colleague at work, are identified as follows: Has empathy with other colleagues Has a proper work culture and attitude Has an ethical sense Is friendly and amicable Is knowledgeable and professional Always has a good style and appearance Is a team oriented person Is a leader in the group Comes out with fresh new ideas Is helpful and cooperative Discussion In this study we selected Marie Oliver, a 35 year old colleague who was suffering from some initial maladjustment in the workplace. Marie was asked to participate in the Repertory Grid Interview process to identify the reasons of her problems, categorise them and come out with possible suggestions. The approach taken was qualitative analysis by using the Personal Constructs theory developed by Kelly and a final analysis using scoring sheet and identifying elements through the Repertory Grid Interview technique. Marie was asked to select characteristics and constructs of persons in her workplace. She identified the most desirable and friendly characteristics in her colleagues against the least desirable ones. The notes taken during conversation with Marie reveal that Marie felt she got along only with a few colleagues only three as mentioned. There were basic differences in professional ethic and conduct with at least two colleagues she was working in collaboration with. The behavioural skills Marie identified as important in defining her good relationship with the colleagues are empathic characteristics in others; any concept of an ideal colleague is also associated with being able to follow a proper work culture and having a proper attitude. Having an ethical sense, a sense of justice and being knowledgeable, professional with a good sense of humour are also identified as important characteristics in a proper friendly colleague. Marie indicated that being friendly, amicable and with good style and appearance has been noted in at least two of her colleagues and this is stark contrast to a third colleague she identified and with whom she doesnt seem to get along. If we consider Kellys perspective of constructive alternativism, it is possible to have alternative perceptions as our perceptions of the world depend completely on our personal constructs. Marie also identified leadership skills, helpfulness and cooperativeness, being able to come out with fresh ideas and following a proper work culture as important aspects of professional behaviour and gave high scores on these aspects to at least two of her colleagues. Overall, a Repertory Grid Interview on Marie showed that she has good and easygoing relations with two of her colleagues but doesnt seem to go well with many of them. The negative implications of the findings which suggest why Marie did not get along with most of her colleagues and seem to show anxiety and depression symptoms as well as dissatisfaction with her workplace were revealed in her perception of constructs on most of her colleagues. Marie suggested that some of her colleagues were low on cooperativeness and helpfulness, friendliness and proper professional attitude making the atmosphere competitive and hostile. The dynamics of Maries actual relations with her colleagues were thus revealed using this Grid interviewing procedure and Maries own perception of her work situation, perception of her situation and role in the office, and perception of her relations with her colleagues and her job were also revealed through this study. As Morrison (1991) used the repertory grid technique to understand nurses perception of care and their evaluation of caring attitudes in nursing, Maries perception of her work culture could easily reveal her ideal understanding of a workplace and what she sought in her colleagues. Her inner constructs, precepts and how she saw the world as an individual were revealed and so were her expectations in the future. Considering Maries perceptions, some psychological counselling to improve her working and professional relationships was recommended. Limitations: The methodological limitations and concerns of interview as a means of knowing peoples construct system were many, as noted by Kelly. These are: 1. Interview Bias – sometimes the interviewer and the school he belongs to whether behaviourist or psychoanalytic could determine the way the session goes and this undermines the objectivity and validity of the study 2. Dependence on the interviewer – the role of the therapist should be minimal and the therapist should just be a tool to facilitate self perception according to Kelly. Most individuals have the capacity to understand his or her problems and any overdependence on the researcher should be avoided. 3. There may be problems with measuring and predicting individual or group characteristics. Although psychology seeks to understand laws of human behaviour, large scale studies showing correlations of different behaviour may not be helpful for study of personal constructs which is based on the understanding of individuals or a small group of people. These methodological limitations have been kept in mind while conducting the interview and interviewer bias and any dependence on the interviewer has been kept to a minimum. Interviewer intervention has also been minimal. Conclusion: In this discussion, we set out with an overview of the Personal Constructs Theory proposed by Kelly (1955). We discussed the different tenets of the constructs theory, the inconsistency of personal constructs and how constructs tend to vary in different people or in same people in different situations. Thus situational factors seem important in constructs and perceptions on other people. Individual constructs form the construct systems and Kelly established the grid method to determine the different elements in a social situation that can be considered as responsible for an individuals disturbed social relationships. In our study of Marie Oliver, a 35 year old employee, her social relationships and possible disturbances were studied using the Repertory Grid Interview technique and her analysis of good and bad characteristics of ten of her colleagues were indicated on the card given to her. The scores were drawn up and according to the analysis the desirable characteristics that Marie perceived in some of her workmates and not in others, were found out. Maries behavioural problems and her unique relationships with her colleagues are then analysed suggesting whether Marie needed any further psychological help for her anxiety, depression and other work related maladjustments. Bibliography Kelly, George Alexander The psychology of personal constructs / George A. Kelly. London : Routledge in association with Centre for Personal Construct Psychology,London, 1991, c1955. Dalton, Peggy. A psychology for living : personal construct theory for professionals and clients / Peggy Dalton and Gavin Dunnett. Chichester : J. Wiley Sons, 1992. University of London. An application of personal construct theory (Kelly) to schizoid thinking. University of London, 1959. Fransella, Fay. George Kelly / Fay Fransella. London : Sage, 1995. Anderson, N. Personality assessment in the graduate milkround interview : A personal construct psychology perspective and study using repertory grid technique. Birmingham : University of Aston Management Centre, 1987. Fransella. F, Bannister. D. 1977. A Manual for Repertory grid technique. Academic Press. London. Bannister, P et al. (1994) Qualitative Methods in Psychology Buckingham: Open University Press. Bannister, D. (1985) (Ed) Issues and approaches in personal construct theory London: Academic Press, 1985 Stevens, R (1996) Understanding the Self London: Open University Sage. Kalekin-Fishman, Devorah. and Walker, Beverley. (1996) The Construction of Group Realities: culture, society and personal construct theory. Malabar: Krieger. Bannister, D. Mair, J. (1968) The Evaluation of Personal Constructs London: Academic Press Smith JA, Harre R, Van Langenhove (1995) Rethinking Methods in Psychology London: Sage. Jack Adams-Webber (Editor) (1983) Applications of Personal Construct Theory Academic Press. The emergence of new intentions in subjective experience: A social/personal constructionist and relational understanding Journal of Vocational Behavior, Volume 64, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 485-498 Mary Sue Richardson Per Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Case Study of Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) Title/Abstract In this study we aim to provide an analysis of a subjects problems using the Personal Constructs Theory (PCT) suggested by Kelly. The subject is a 35 year old female full time employee working in the same company as the researcher and has shown no barriers to construing. The subjects problems with her relationships have been determined using the Repertory grid interview and we discuss results and provide an analysis of the findings following the interview and data collection. The interview was done to identify elements within the clients relationships and all interview limitations have been considered for the study. We provide an analysis of Personal Constructs Theory in general giving a brief overview of its main premises and principles and then move on to its applications including the Grid interview technique on our client. We discuss the results and analyse the findings accordingly. Introduction George Kellys Personal Construct Theory (PCT) emphasises that the world is perceived by a person according to the meaning the person applies to it and the person has the freedom to choose a meaning according to what he or she wants (Kelly, 1955). Thus a person has the freedom to choose a meaning in terms of which he perceives the world and can apply alternative constructions or meanings to his past, present and future events. Thus a person is not a victim of his events but can liberate himself from unpleasant events by reinterpreting and redefining them. According to Kelly (1955) PCT attempts to explain why a man does what he does and is a theory about how the human process flows, how it strives in new directions as well as in old, and how it may dare for the first time to reach into the depths of newly perceived dimensions Kelly states that a persons processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipate the events'(1955). Here, the subject is the process and the individual is a behaving organism who may need an external force to initiate an event. The processes include those of self-definition and relationships with others, and how we interpret events around us as well as the events we perceive and tasks at hand (Kelly 1955). Kelly based his theory of PCT on man as the scientist model and the basic points were as follows: the individual creates his or her own ways of seeing the world and interprets events according to how he perceive them the individual builds percepts and constructs; these constructs are organized into systems, or group of constructs which embody relationships; two or more systems may contain the same events, yet the events are separate from any of the systems; any individuals systems have a definite foci The term construct is a concept that represents the view a person has constructed about the world as he experiences it. Constructs also represent the way a person is likely to construe the world and the construct system as a whole represents the history and predisposition to perceive the world in a particular way. Kelly also distinguished between social reality, individual reality and communality. Individuality denotes that every individual differ from each other in how they construct or perceive the world, communality refers to the underlying similarities or common elements in perception and how the construction of experience in one person is similar to that of another (Kelly, 1955). Social reality is perception of how one person construes the construction processes of another person and how they are involved in a social role. Personal construct theory has been used in several sociological and scientific disciplines and it has been emphasised that social reality and communality should be considered along with the individual or personal reality and both have to be considered together in developing an understanding of the psychological processes (Dalton, 1992). The theory of Personal Constructs, points out that it is our personal psychological constructs that make the world predictable. We use construct systems to help in perception of the world and respond to all situations according to these perceptions. Our construct systems help us to make sense of the world, to make it predictable, to draw conclusions about causes and effects and we learn from experiences and adjust our behaviour accordingly (Fransella, 1995). Kelly wrote that the construct systems influence our expectations and perceptions and reflect our past experiences according to which we shape our future expectations. For example since we known from our past experiences that winters are cold, we would take adequate measures of protection during winter because we expect winters to be cold. However according to Kelly, our construct systems grow and change and are not static and are either confirmed or challenged when we are conscious. We adapt and immunise our constructs according to the situation and alter our feelings according to our experiences. We also tend to think and react according to our construct systems and some constructs represent values and key relationships which are difficult to change and fixed whereas some other constructs are less complex and more flexible and adaptive. The truth about the world as understood and experienced determines the nature of the construct system. Construct systems are not generally judged according to any objective truth and depend on an individuals personal feelings, perceptions and choices (Dalton, 1992). One individuals construct system may be different from anothers and when there is a general disagreement in constructs, it is generally denoted by prejudice or preconception. Although conflicts and differences of opinions are unpleasant, these events help us to understand differences in people and help us to learn how other people perceive things (Stevens, 1996). However construct systems change and may not be altogether internally consistent. People may react or perceive things differently even in similar circumstances and this is normal as there is a certain degree of internal inconsistency in perception of events. Distortions of judgement due to internal inconsistency of personal constructs can be harmful for a person as he may suffer from personal distress. The extent to which one person can appreciate and react to another persons constructs is a measure of empathy or how one perceives another (Banister, 1985). One persons construct system may be markedly different from another p ersons constructs yet one should be able to infer the other persons construct in order to empathise and develop a sense of social oneness and responsibility. Kellys theory is one of the most effective theories in social research and helps to provide a psychological explanation of social similarities and differences. The applications of Kellys theory of Personal constructs are wide and varied as it helps to provide mathematical representations of constructs systems. Construct systems are multidimensional mathematical models and a persons language is used to classify his or her experiences. Kelly developed a number of mathematical models and representations of construct systems and tested hypotheses that followed from basic personal construct theory (Fransella and Bannister, 1977). To understand peoples personal construct systems the repertory Grid Interview technique was developed, also known as the Role Construct Repertory Test. The repertoire of constructs that a person develops represents some form of perception, judgement or evaluation and is always comparative. Thus judgement of anything good is in comparison with the concept of bad. Thus in using a Grid interview three elements are considered and then two are paired in contrast with a third. The theory of personal constructs can be applied to personal experiences and relationships and so parents, relations, friends, colleagues and the individual are largely responsible for the formation of constructs (Smith et al, 1995; Kalekin-Fishman et al, 1996). Kelly elicited a patients constructs, rated the different elements on the constructs and used the resultant grid to point out to the client what his primary problems or concerns were. This helped to decide which therapy would be important and helped to determine the progress and effectiveness of therapy. For example one could find the two elements in a personal relationship of a patient and his mother and use this technique to find out differences between a patients perception of himself and what his mother would like him to be. The patient would then be encouraged to provide a self description and work through means of making his relationship with his mother more pleasant and productive. If there are paranoid elements recognised in a patients perception of himself or his relationships, appropriate therapeutic interventions are suggested. The Repertory Grid interviewing technique was developed by Kelly to overcome some of the methodological limitations of the interview method. The main steps of the Grid technique include 1. Selecting a set of elements – this could be anything from relationships to issues and the elements could be people involved in these relationships with the client. 2. The elements are taken in groups of three and the client is asked to pair two of them separating the third according to a special characteristic (Adams-Webber, 1983). Thus here the differentiation is done according to constructs determined by the client and is done on a bipolar scale with the interviewer setting up the question but the client determining the content (Anderson, 1987). The constructs are examined in some detail and after the interview the constructs are made into scales of 1-5 and the interviewee is expected to rate every element for every construct on this scale. The result is a matrix and this is then analysed statistically to show the client his problems and how they can be tackled. The statistical analysis helps to give measurements of individual people characteristics and compares peoples perceptions before and after the interview. The Grid is thus a statistical, and content free process and although the interviewer initiates its functions, it is the patient who drives it allowing him to come out with his own perceptions thus giving the process a freedom from any interviewer bias and allows complete transparency(Anderson, 1987). Since it is also a standardised interviewing technique any interviewer can read the interview and understand its implications. Russell and Cox (2003) and Morrison (1991) have stressed on the importance of repertory grid in the analysis of individual perceptions. Considering Kellys constructivist alternativism, we can assume that all our present perceptions of the world could be subject to changes and revisions and accordingly our perceptions of people and subsequently our interpersonal relationships could also be changed according to this principle. Method A 35 year old female colleague, Marie Oliver was selected for the interview process. The client was having some relationship problems, especially with her work colleagues and has been showing maladjustment along with problems of anxiety, depression and lack of productivity at work. The participant was apprised of the purpose of the interviewing and was asked to participate suggesting that participation in the interview would help her in overcoming her personal problems. A Repertory Grid Interview was done and the first step was identifying elements or grid components. For this all the possible elements including people in relationships were identified. Thus elements are work colleagues known to the participant and to the researcher, and the participant used triad method with the elements to create constructs around any one chosen topic. Elements were then compared by asking participant to take 3 elements and ascertain where 2 are similar and 1 is different, and the participant was en couraged to continue until all possible combinations were exhausted of 3 elements from the set of 10. The instruction given in this case was , choose any three of these known people and group two of them together separating a possible third to show why two of them are similar and how they differ from the third person. This process was used to identify similarities and differences of individuals until the participant ran out of constructs. Several mini-grids were developed in advance to ensure that the participant was comfortable with the process of grid construction. Then the Participant followed the process, generated the first grid, to ascertain whether each element is more like the similarity pole or difference pole by marking with x or o respectively. The participant then generated a second grid to rate each element on each of the 10 constructs using 1-5 point scale, but presented the grid to experimenter without ratings, experimenter then created the final grid as the participant. The main aim and purpose of the interview was agreed with the participant and views about other work colleagues were thus taken. The participant was fully informed from outset regarding the possibility that the revelations from the Grid Interview could be unsettling for her. However for these purposes, participants consent form was also signed in advance and the constructs were then set up on the grid allowing to be revealed. In the process of the interview, the researcher made notes on participant behaviour and perceptions as verbally revealed. In this case, the participant Marie was asked to identify the elements in her workplace that could be considered in her relationships with colleagues. Marie identified 10 colleagues at her workplace and separated two of them as distinct from a third. The common points and the differences were noted. Each of the 10 constructs chosen were rated on a 1-5 scale and the grids were created with similarity and difference poles marked by x or an o. This was done in case of determining constructs and relationships with work colleagues. After the formation of a grid, an analysis was drawn up. Findings/Analysis The two assumptions of the Grid Interview by Kelly were as follows: 1. If we can identify an individuals construct map there is a strong possibility we can predict that individuals behaviour. 2. We may be able to modify an individuals map, and therefore behaviour, by some form of training. The two aspects of the Repertory Grid are 1. Elements which are the objects of an individuals thinking and to which they relate their concepts or values. These elements may be people with qualities like effective, unprofessional, etc or they may be objects or abstract, concrete concepts like the interview or a test 2. Constructs are the qualities used to describe the elements in our personal, individual relationships thus a person is effective because he has a pleasant relationship with his staff which reflects personal construct as applied to the element of an effective individual The main elements in an analysis when a grid is applied to an individual are: 1. The results relate to that individual alone 2. Only one grid has to be analysed for an individuals report. 3. A grid scoring form is used to perform the analysis The Findings and Analysis help us to probe the following questions: To what extent was the study helpful in understanding the participants view of the topic of examination? Identification and justification of apparent areas of understanding and lack of understanding Is a pattern of understanding evident? How does the analysis link with the notes made prior to completing grids on expected areas of degree of understanding? What is the meaning revealed by the participants choice of elements and constructs? Do the elements and constructs reveal a similar or different view of the topic of analysis chosen? What does the degree of the match imply? Was the study any more helpful when conversation elaboration was also used as an extended method? Is some analysis of new understandings reached during feedback conversation helpful for the process? What do the notes and quotes as revealed by the client suggest? The findings are given as follows: Degree of similarity Elements (Mostly worked together with these individuals) Close agreement on 4, 5, 6 – elements Less agreement on 9 – element (Mostly worked separately with these individuals) Little agreement on 1,2,3,7,8,10- elements with different negative personal experiences working with E7 and E8 on particular projects. Degree of similarity – Constructs Close agreement on 6 – constructs (professional conduct). Upon discussion, views were similar regarding the meaning of professional conduct and who could be trusted. Less agreement on 1,3,4,5,7,9 – constructs. Upon discussion, researcher and client shared similar/same definitions of each construct. Differences in definitions regarding Constructs Little agreement on 2,8,10 constructs. Upon discussion, our definitions were different, hence our measurement of each element came from a different understanding of constructs. The elements identified by Marie were individuals at the workplace and Marie revealed that she worked closely with elements 4, 5 and 6 although had less agreement with element or colleague 9. Marie revealed that she has worked separately and had negative personal experiences with colleagues identified as elements 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 and 10 although she said she was working on the same project with two of these negatively perceived colleagues 7 and 8. Mari suggested a close agreement with 6 on professional conduct and said that her views with 6 were similar regarding professional conduct, friendships and trust issues as to who in the office should or should not be trusted. Marie suggested that her constructs were either in contrast to or were not compatible with those of 1, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 elements or colleagues identified. Marie and the researcher had some discussions on the nature and definition of particular perceptions and constructs and the general definition of these identified by th e researcher were similar to that of the subject. The subjects perceptions, feedback and opinions on the constructs were noted separately. Marie identified that two of the colleagues were friendly and amicable and compared with the other person who in contrast has been described as unfriendly and not easy to get along with. The Repertory Grid Scoring sheet is drawn as follows: Pairs similarities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 empathy Work culture attitude friendliness knowledgeable Team orientedness Good style appearance leadership helpfulness The process of producing the Repertory Grid can be broken down into the following steps: Step One The participant Marie identifies ten colleagues whom she knows well. Among these ten colleagues Marie should go along well with at least two of them ideally. Step Two – Marie is given six pieces of card or paper on which she is asked to write the names of the people she has identified. These are the elements described. A number can also be added to the card/paper to signify description and added at the head of column on the scoring sheet. Alternatively, the name itself of the element identified can be entered on the scoring sheet as well. Step Three – Three cards are selected, for example 1, 2 and 3, and Marie is asked to identify some aspect related to these colleagues behaviour which makes two of the three people selected different from the third. The construct word or phrase is written in the top left side of the vertical columns. In the top right side of the vertical columns is written the description of the person one who is different from the other two. This process of obtaining constructs from the three people is continued until no further constructs or perceived characteristics could be elicited from the participant. Step Four – Once the constructs have been completely elicited and entered on the scoresheet, the cards are returned. Each element person is then given a score on a scale of 1 to 5. A score of 1 or 2 is allocated to those who are suited to the description in the left-hand column, the column with the description of the pair. Scores of 5 or 4 are allocated to those who match with the description in the right-hand column, the description of the odd person out Step Five – A different set of three cards is then selected, cards 4, 5 and 6 and the process in steps 3 and 4 is repeated, ensuring that the description of pairs is recorded in the left-hand column and a score of 1 or 2 relates to the pairs similarity and score points of 4 and 5 relate to the description of the single person. A score of 3 is average score. A score of at least one 1 and one 5 is helpful when allocated usually from the set of three people for whom the constructs are being elicited. Step Six – Step five is repeated and the various combinations of the elements are aimed to be covered until the participants run out of perceived characteristics or constructs that could be entered on the card. After the grid consideration, the grid scoring sheet is used to record the views of the participant for each element against each construct which has been offered. The data collected is then subject to analysis. A manual analysis can generate and extract considerable information from the grid and all the constructs are related to the personal characteristics of each work colleague considered in the study by Marie. Step Seven – In this case study we consider the behavioural aspects of work colleagues of Marie which is related to their overall friendliness, therefore at the end of the grid Marie is asked to rate the elements in a single, given construct over a scale of friendly to unfriendly. The scoring for friendliness is then compared with other individual aspects to highlight differences and to provide indicators for friendliness. Step Eight – The scores for each construct are obtained by marking the difference for each element against the general friendliness figure. Step Nine – In this phase, we analyse the various constructs on the basis that if the score is low the aspect measured is significant in the ranking for friendliness It is the duty of interviewer to remain without any bias and to refrain from giving any suggestion to the participant on what constructs should be drawn. Forming the constructs is entirely dependent on the participant and the researcher has no role in its formation. They must be according to the thoughts and perceptions of the individual who is being interviewed in this case, Marie although the constructs must be clear, meaningful. Here the analyst has helped her in one or two cases when she couldnt describe the construct and sought help of the analyst to come out with the right word. After the constructs are listed against the elements, the grid results are scored and are ready to be used for analysis. From the example used in this study -the aspects which go towards the behavioural skills of colleague at work, are identified as follows: Has empathy with other colleagues Has a proper work culture and attitude Has an ethical sense Is friendly and amicable Is knowledgeable and professional Always has a good style and appearance Is a team oriented person Is a leader in the group Comes out with fresh new ideas Is helpful and cooperative Discussion In this study we selected Marie Oliver, a 35 year old colleague who was suffering from some initial maladjustment in the workplace. Marie was asked to participate in the Repertory Grid Interview process to identify the reasons of her problems, categorise them and come out with possible suggestions. The approach taken was qualitative analysis by using the Personal Constructs theory developed by Kelly and a final analysis using scoring sheet and identifying elements through the Repertory Grid Interview technique. Marie was asked to select characteristics and constructs of persons in her workplace. She identified the most desirable and friendly characteristics in her colleagues against the least desirable ones. The notes taken during conversation with Marie reveal that Marie felt she got along only with a few colleagues only three as mentioned. There were basic differences in professional ethic and conduct with at least two colleagues she was working in collaboration with. The behavioural skills Marie identified as important in defining her good relationship with the colleagues are empathic characteristics in others; any concept of an ideal colleague is also associated with being able to follow a proper work culture and having a proper attitude. Having an ethical sense, a sense of justice and being knowledgeable, professional with a good sense of humour are also identified as important characteristics in a proper friendly colleague. Marie indicated that being friendly, amicable and with good style and appearance has been noted in at least two of her colleagues and this is stark contrast to a third colleague she identified and with whom she doesnt seem to get along. If we consider Kellys perspective of constructive alternativism, it is possible to have alternative perceptions as our perceptions of the world depend completely on our personal constructs. Marie also identified leadership skills, helpfulness and cooperativeness, being able to come out with fresh ideas and following a proper work culture as important aspects of professional behaviour and gave high scores on these aspects to at least two of her colleagues. Overall, a Repertory Grid Interview on Marie showed that she has good and easygoing relations with two of her colleagues but doesnt seem to go well with many of them. The negative implications of the findings which suggest why Marie did not get along with most of her colleagues and seem to show anxiety and depression symptoms as well as dissatisfaction with her workplace were revealed in her perception of constructs on most of her colleagues. Marie suggested that some of her colleagues were low on cooperativeness and helpfulness, friendliness and proper professional attitude making the atmosphere competitive and hostile. The dynamics of Maries actual relations with her colleagues were thus revealed using this Grid interviewing procedure and Maries own perception of her work situation, perception of her situation and role in the office, and perception of her relations with her colleagues and her job were also revealed through this study. As Morrison (1991) used the repertory grid technique to understand nurses perception of care and their evaluation of caring attitudes in nursing, Maries perception of her work culture could easily reveal her ideal understanding of a workplace and what she sought in her colleagues. Her inner constructs, precepts and how she saw the world as an individual were revealed and so were her expectations in the future. Considering Maries perceptions, some psychological counselling to improve her working and professional relationships was recommended. Limitations: The methodological limitations and concerns of interview as a means of knowing peoples construct system were many, as noted by Kelly. These are: 1. Interview Bias – sometimes the interviewer and the school he belongs to whether behaviourist or psychoanalytic could determine the way the session goes and this undermines the objectivity and validity of the study 2. Dependence on the interviewer – the role of the therapist should be minimal and the therapist should just be a tool to facilitate self perception according to Kelly. Most individuals have the capacity to understand his or her problems and any overdependence on the researcher should be avoided. 3. There may be problems with measuring and predicting individual or group characteristics. Although psychology seeks to understand laws of human behaviour, large scale studies showing correlations of different behaviour may not be helpful for study of personal constructs which is based on the understanding of individuals or a small group of people. These methodological limitations have been kept in mind while conducting the interview and interviewer bias and any dependence on the interviewer has been kept to a minimum. Interviewer intervention has also been minimal. Conclusion: In this discussion, we set out with an overview of the Personal Constructs Theory proposed by Kelly (1955). We discussed the different tenets of the constructs theory, the inconsistency of personal constructs and how constructs tend to vary in different people or in same people in different situations. Thus situational factors seem important in constructs and perceptions on other people. Individual constructs form the construct systems and Kelly established the grid method to determine the different elements in a social situation that can be considered as responsible for an individuals disturbed social relationships. In our study of Marie Oliver, a 35 year old employee, her social relationships and possible disturbances were studied using the Repertory Grid Interview technique and her analysis of good and bad characteristics of ten of her colleagues were indicated on the card given to her. The scores were drawn up and according to the analysis the desirable characteristics that Marie perceived in some of her workmates and not in others, were found out. Maries behavioural problems and her unique relationships with her colleagues are then analysed suggesting whether Marie needed any further psychological help for her anxiety, depression and other work related maladjustments. Bibliography Kelly, George Alexander The psychology of personal constructs / George A. Kelly. 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